The Essential Oils

The Essential Oils

CHAPTER 1. THE ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT OF THE ESSENTIAL OIL INDUSTRY

I. THE BEGINNING

II. FROM THE SIXTEENTH TO THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY

III. MODERN DEVELOPMENT

IV. PRODUCTION OF ESSENTIAL OILS IN THEUNITED STATES OF AMERICA

V. GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF PRESENT DAY ESSENTIALOIL PRODUCTION

CHAPTER 2. THE CHEMISTRY, ORIGIN AND FUNCTION OF ESSENTIAL OILS IN PLANT LIFE

I. THE CHEMISTRY OF ESSENTIAL OILS

II. THE ORIGIN OF ESSENTIAL OILS

III. THE FUNCTION OF ESSENTIAL OILS IN PLANTS

CHAPTER 3. THE PRODUCTION OF ESSENTIAL OILS: METHODS OF DISTILLATION, ENFLEVRAGE, MACERATION, AND EXTRACTION WITH VOLATILE SOLVENTS.

A. DISTILLATION OF ESSENTIAL OILS

Introduction

I. THEORIES OF DISTILLATION

II. PRACTICE OF DISTILLATION

a. Treatment of the Plant Material

Comminution of the Plant Material

Storage of the Plant Material

Loss of Essential Oil in the Plant Material Prior to Distillation

Change in the Physicochemical Properties of EssentialOils During Plant Drying

b. General Methods of Distillation

Water Distillation

Water and Steam Distillation

Steam Distillation

The Effort of Hydrodiffusioii in Plant Distillation

The Effect of Hydrolysis in Plant Distillation

The Effect of Heat in Plant Distillation

Conclusions

c. Equipment for Distillation of Aromatic Plants

The Retort

Insulation of the Retort

Charging of the Still

The Condenser

The Oil Separator

Steam Boilers

d. Practical Problems Connected with Essential Oil Distillation

Water Distillation

Water and Steam Distillation

Steam Distillation.

End of Distillation.

Treatment of the Volatile Oil

Treatment of the Distillation Water

Disposal of the Spent Plant Material

Trial Distillation

Steam Consumption in Plant ] distillation

Rate of Distillation

Pressure Differential Within the Still

Pressure Differential Inside and Outside of Oil Glands

Effect of Moisture and I Feat upon the Plant Tissue

Influence of the Distillation Method on the Quality of the Volatile Oils

General Difficulties in Distillation

e. Hydrodistillation of Plant Material at High and at Reduced Pressure, and with Superheated Steam

Steam Distillation of Plant Material at High Pressure

Water Distillation of Plant Material at High Pressure

Steam Distillation of Plant Material at Reduced Pressure

Water Distillation of Plant Material at Reduced Pressure

Superheated Vapors

Distillation of Plant Material with Superheated Steam

Advantages and Disadvantages of High-Pressure

and Superheated Steam in Plant Distillation

f. Field Distillation of Plant Material

Distillation of Lavender in France

Distillation of Pctitgrain Oil in Paraguay

Distillation of Linaloe Wood in Mexico

Distillation of Cassia Leaves and Twigs in China

g. Rectification and Fractionation of Essential Oils

Rectification of Essential Oils

Fractionation of Essential Oils

Inadequacies of Hydrodistillation

h. Hydrodistillation of Essential Oils at High and at Reduced Pressure, and with Superheated Steam

Water Distillation of Essential Oils at Reduced Pressure

Water Distillation of Essential Oils at High Pressure

Distillation of Essential Oils with Superheated Steam

Distillation of Essential Oils with SuperheatedSteam at Reduced Pressure

B. NATURAL FLOWER OILS.

I. EXTKACTK WITH COLD FAT (ENFLEURAGE)

a. Preparation of the Fat Corps

b. Enfleurage and Défleurage.

c. Alcoholic Extraits

d. Absolutes of Enfleurage.

e. Absolutes of Chassis

II. EXTRACTION WITH HOT FAT (MACKKATION)

III. EXTHACTION WITH VOLATILK SOLVENTS

a. Selection of the Solvent

Petroleum Ether

Benzene (Benzol)

Alcohol

b. Apparatus of Extraction

General Arrangement

Construction of Apparatus

Description of Extraction Batteries

Rotatory Extractors

Concentration of Solutions

Final Concentration

Concrete Flower Oils

Conversion of Concretes into Absolutes

Conclusions

c. The Evaluation of Natural Flower Oils and Resinoids

C. CONCENTRATED, TERPENELESS AND SESQUITERPENELESSESSENTIAL OILS

CHAPTER 4. THE EXAMINATION AND ANALYSIS OF ESSENTIAL OILS, SYNTHETICS, AND ISOLATES

I. INTRODUCTION

II. SAMPLING AND STORAGE

III. DETERMINATION OF PHYSICAL PROPERTIES

1. Specific Gravity

2. Optical Rotation

a. Liquids

b. Solids

3. Refractive Index

4. Molecular Refraction

5. Solubility

a. Solubility in Alcohol

b. Solubility in Nonalcoholic Media

6. Congealing Point

7. Melting Point

8. Boiling Range

9. Evaporation Residue

10. Flash Point

IV. DETERMINATION OF CHEMICAL PROPERTIES

1. Determination of Acids

2. Determination of Esters

a. Determination by Saponification with Heat

b. Determination by Saponification in the Cold

3. Determination of Alcohols

a. Determination by Acetylation

b. Determination of Primary Alcohols

c. Determination of Tertiary Terpene Alcohols

d. Determination of Citronellol by Formylation

4. Determination of Aldehydes and Ketones

a. Bisulfite Method

b. Neutral Sulfite Method

c. Phenylhydrazine Method

d. Hydroxylaminc Methods

5. Determination of Phenols

6. Determination of Cineole

7. Determination of Ascaridole

8. Determination of Camphor

9. Determination of Methyl Anthranilate

10. Determination of Allyl Isothiocyanate

11. Determination of Hydrogen Cyanide

12. Determination of Iodine Number

V. SPECIAL TESTS AND PROCEDURES

1. Flavor Tests

2. Tests for Halogens

3. Tests for Heavy Metals

4. Test for Dimethyl Sulfidc in Peppermint Oils

5. Tests for Impurities in Nitrobenzene

a. Test for Thiophene

b. Soap Test

6. Test for Phellandrene

7. Test for Furfural

8. Test for Phenol in Methyl Salieylate

9. Determination of Essential Oil Content of PlantMaterial and Oleoresins

10. Determination of Ethyl Alcohol Content ofTinctures and Essences

11. Determination of Water Content

a. Determination by the Bidwell-Sterling Method

b. Determination by the Karl Fischer Method

12. Determination of Stearoptene Content of RoseOils

13. Determination of Safrole Content of SassafrasOils

14. Determination of Cedrol Content of Cedarwood Oils

15. Determination of the Color Value of OleoresinCapsicum

VI. DETECTION OF ADULTERANTS

1. Detection of Foreign Oils in Sweet Birch andWintergreen Oils

2. Detection of Petroleum and Mineral Oil

a. Oleum Test

b. Schimmel Tests

3. Detection of Rosin

a. Detection of Rosin in Balsams and Gums

b. Detection of Rosin in Cassia Oils

c. Detection of Rosin in Orange Oils

4. Detection of Terpinyl Acetate

5. Detection of Turpentine Oil

6. Detection of Acetins

7. Detection of Ethyl Alcohol

8. Detection of Methyl Alcohol

9. Detection of High Boiling Esters

a. Detection of Various Esters

b. Detection of Phthalates

10. Detection of Mentha Arvensis Oil

11. Detection of Various Adulterants

VII. A PROCEDURE FOR THE INVESTIGATION OF THECHEMICAL CONSTITUENTS OF AN ESSENTIAL OIL

VIII. SUGGESTED ADDITIONAL LITERATURE